Intercultural aspect of culture Essay Example for Free

Intercultural aspect of culture Essay During the first day of the workshop, I did not completely understand the real meaning of culture. I did not even have a single definition for the term culture. Many questions came into my mind such as, â€Å"What is culture? What are the factors that create culture? What is the scope of culture? Does culture improve itself or not? Although, I started the inquiry on the concept of culture without certain answers for these questions, I had figured them out step by step during that day. I started to find answers for most of the questions that I faced. I finally understood what culture was and why different people with different cultures had different behaviors. By understanding the factors that influenced culture, I started to learn its importance to the parties who got involved in particular conflicts. Throughout that day, I comprehended why people with different cultures got involved in particular conflicts and what were their objectives. I started to give answers for these queries. They might need someone whom they can air their grievances or opinions with. Moreover, they might only wish that others would respect their culture as it was. In the role play, I learned that listening skill was very helpful in making the parties who were involved in the conflict feel better. Also, they should be given the chance to continue telling their stories without any interruption. I had also learned that I could be able to interact with them simply through body language such as moving my head up and down which tells, â€Å"I understand you. Keep going. † Furthermore, these skills would give me the chance to get as much information as possible and understand the parties’ cultures. Personally, I think that having much understanding of other cultures using the skills mentioned earlier would help me adapt with their behaviors and become more flexible when dealing with them. Culture’s factors such as religion, climate and geography play very significant roles in parties’ behavior. These explain why different countries have different cultures. Finally, all ideas and skills that I had learned during the first day of the workshop let me pay a close attention on understanding other cultures, respecting their beliefs and values as I want other people do the same thing when they cross my culture. I would try to use these ideas and skills in my daily life – simply by listening to other people and respecting them. Before evolving an intercultural model of conflict resolution it is important to understand and identify aspects of culture that lead to creation of the framework of conflict. The cultural spectrum holds different shades for a person, a society and a nation, accordingly helping each of them to assimilate and adapt to a common identity that is defined and shaped by culture (Holliday, Hyde and Kullman, 2004). In the process of evolving this collective identity, culture transcends its traditional role of providing an aggregate set of beliefs, customs, norms, values, ethics, traditions, moral, social and legal codes, perceptions, and philosophy, to become the overall physical framework for the society to function. Culture attains a real form, rendering a three dimensional living space for people to experience its living force ((Holliday, Hyde and Kullman, 2004)). Culture is strongly related with geographical setting of a place, religion, ethnicity, and race, explaining why different countries have different cultures, and also why places on seashore share common elements of culture that is quite different from culture of mountainous places. The imprinting of culture on ways a person thinks, acts, perceives the environment and models his/her reaction is very strong and virtually indelible, determining every aspect of human behavior and giving rise to cultural identity in addition to individual and national identity. Although the classic rational choice framework says that people are independent in choice of their behavior and approach towards events, its seen that at subtle levels the structural model provided by culture acts as final determinant in predicting a person, a society and a nation. Although culture is dynamic, evolving and continuously upgrading itself, in essence, these changes occur within the context of culture’s own timeframe. One of the most important contribution of culture to human civilization is the orientation provided towards other cultures, making the culture in question receptive, tolerant, indifferent or outright hostile towards different cultures. Societies are seldom mono-cultural, displaying a range of cultural traits, achieved through generations of trades, contact, and cross cultural mixing (Holliday, Hyde and Kullman, 2004). However, although for people belonging to a particular culture, their culture would hardly seem complex, the cultural realities are hidden beneath the surface, difficult to observe and discern from outside. These improper understanding and imperfect perceptions of culture often give rise to conflict when different cultures are required to meet or come across.

Is it necessary to have VAT/GST in Hong Kong?

Is it necessary to have VAT/GST in Hong Kong? Limitations of Research: the researcher could not use all the internet sources because some of them are written in Chinese, the researcher followed the structure that is provided by you but I have noticed that there is repetition in the points that are mentioned in the objectives and the points that are mentioned in the chapter plan, also there is a repetition in the resources that are mentioned in the data and information needs and the points in relevant literature consulted. The researcher shall bear no responsibility for any confusion caused by the un-clarity of the attached document. Introduction: More than 120 countries have imposed Goods and Services Tax, the only developed country that has not imposed this tax is Hong Kong. VAT or GST has been introduced by France in 1954(Ministry of Economy, Finance and Industry). All the developed countries (except Hong Kong) and most of the developing countries have followed France in imposing VAT/GST because this tax is considered: Fair: VAT/GST is considered a fair tax because it relates the amount of collected tax to the amount of consumption; the more you consume, the more you pay VAT. Simplicity: unlike any other taxes, VAT/GST is considered a straightforward tax; it is imposed according to a known percentage on the value of the products and services Efficiency: this tax is very efficient, it is very easy to collect it and it is very difficult to avoid it. Chapter2: Objectives: The purpose of this research is to find out whether VAT/GST is a suitable tax for Hong Kong or not. The research has covered very large material and literature about Hong Kong and similar economies to Hong Kong such as Singapore. The research also aimed to show that most of the governments of the world are broadening their budgets by imposing VAT/GST on customers while they are trying to reduce income and corporate taxes. Chapter3: Literature consulted: The research has covered a large part of literature published by global accredited organizations such as Price Waterhouse coopers, Ernest Young and the government of Hong Kong. The major text books have been used to give us a broad idea about the issue in research while the specialized working papers, Internet articles and government websites have been used in order to give us a clear idea about the issue in research. The research consulted working papers published by several universities and bodies in order to explain the theoretical principles behind imposing VAT/GST (Hubbard,G,R(1997)and the impact of VAT/GST on the informal sector in developed countries. Chapter4: Proposed Methodology: we can see from the above chart the deficit that have faced Hong Kong from 1997 until 2003, the revenue was very low compared to the spending which proved to be steady. †During the same year, about 70% of the total revenue collected by the Inland Revenue Department came from profits tax and salaries tax. Nevertheless, the profits and salaries tax nets are very narrow and shrinking. Less than 40% of our workforce of 3.2 million people pay any salaries tax, and only 10,000 people pay the maximum salaries tax rate of 15%. About 5% of the payers of profits tax contribute to 80% of the profits tax revenue. Further loss of profits could occur as a result of globalisation. Besides, the spread of e-commerce will have implications on all governments abilities to assess and collect business-related taxes. In this regard, both the Financial Secretary and the Secretary for the Treasury expressed their concerns on the impact of the exponential growth of e-commerce on Hong Kongs territorial-based tax system. The Government will set up a Task Force to review public finances and an independent committee on new broad-based taxes†, Wong, J(no date given) The research has depended on major questionnaire that have been distributed to citizens and companies in Hong Kong in order to get their opinion about VAT/GST tax. The response that I have got from this questionnaire has been used in predicting the change in consumption behavior by the citizens of Hong Kong. The research has also depended on comparative analysis in order to see how Hong Kong economy will be affected and how the whole tax system will be redesigned. The research depended on some graphs to illustrate the topic further. Chapter5: Data and Information needs and sources: This research needs theortical as well as practical data and comparative analysis. This research is different because it assesses the potential of something that might happen in the future. The researcher has conducted a questionnaire in order to measure the acceptance of the people to VAT and their views about the fiscal position of their country. The researcher tried to make sure that the sample is random, so the results are random too and not biased. The research required me to use some theoretical concepts in order to assess the impact of VAT. The research also depended on comparative analysis in order to see what happened to similar economies that have implemented VAT/GST. Chapter6: Chapter Plan: Understanding the principles behind using an expenditure tax like GST/VAT: Definition of GST: Goods and Services tax is imposed on: Goods and Services tax is broad-based and equitable and is capable of yielding sizeable and steady revenues. VAT or GST is a consumption tax, it is paid by the consumer of the product or the service as a percentage of the final price. It is related to all commercial activities involving the production and distribution of services; it is not charged on companies which mean that companies can deduct from their VAT liabilities the amount of tax they have paid to other taxable persons on purchases for their business activities. Hong Kong government is considering introducing VAT/GST tax in 2009(Hong Kong’s Inland Revenue). Difference between VAT and Sales Tax: VAT is imposed on every stage of production while Sales tax is actually collected in the form of extra charge by the retailer, who remits the tax to the government. VAT and the Theory of Economics: There have been a long debate between different economic schools of thought around the world about tax reform. Some economists prefer income tax to VAT/GST because it provides fair treatment to the citizens of the country while others prefer VAT/GST. According to Hubbard,G,R(1997), some economists support VAT for the following reasons: Imposing VAT instead of income tax will encourage capital accumulation and savings. Removing income and profit taxes will remove distortions in the allocation of capital among different economic sectors. A broad based consumption tax would avoid potential costly distortions of firm’s financial structures. Importance of VAT: Today it is a key source of government revenue in over 120 countries. About 4 billion people, 70 percent of the worlds population, now live in countries with a VAT, and it raises about $18 trillion in tax revenue, Liam E., Michael K., Jean-Paul B. and Victoria S(1991) VAT has advantages and disadvantages: Disadvantages of imposing VAT: VAT discourages specialist economic activity and fragmentation in the production because VAT will be fragmented; VAT encourages integration in order to avoid compounded VAT. VAT encourages financing big governments: in the 1960s, the size of governments in the US and the UK were approximately equal, in the year 2002, the size of the government in Europe have exceeded the size of the US government, many analysts attribute the difference between the sizes of the two governments to VAT, The expansion of the government will lead to higher prices and inefficient production, the thing that will lead to more taxes in the future. VAT will reduce the available capital to private businesses and raise interest rates, increasing interest rates will stifle economic growth and reduce the potential growth. Advantages of imposing VAT: VAT could finance the debt of the government because it provides stable and steady stream of income that is capable of financing development projects. VAT could reduce consumption and make the citizens of any country save and invest more money. By encouraging integration, VAT could push the economy towards mergers that will reduce the stages of production; VAT simply tends to encourage big businesses to get bigger by buying other companies, this could yield economies of scale and generate synergies.. Selectivity: the government can select the products and services that it needs to impose VAT on, for example, most government exclude food from VAT, by using VAT governments could take into its consideration the difficult economic situation of the poor and decide the exclusions that apply to them. VAT is a secure way to finance the government’s structural deficit, VAT covers most of the economic segments in the economy and it is very difficult to evade it. Introduce a historical background, economy and tax system in Hong Kong: The Modern History of Hong Kong: Hong Kong was a British dependency from the 1840s until July 1, 1997, when it passed to Chinese sovereignty as the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR), Pannell,C(1998). The British control of Hong Kong began in 1842, when China was forced to cede Hong Kong Island to Great Britain after the First Opium War. In 1984 Great Britain and China signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration, which stipulated that Hong Kong return to Chinese rule in 1997 as a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China. The Joint Declaration and a Chinese law called the Basic Law, which followed in 1990, provide for the SAR to operate with a high degree of economic autonomy for 50 years beyond 1997, Reference: China Connection. In the Fifties of the last century, the threat of the cold world was looming over the world. Investors were looking for a safe heaven to locate their businesses and investments in a neutral place away from the eastern and the western camps, investors found in Hong Kong a promising country that is able to deliver good business environment that could foster growth and political stability at the same time. Growth in Hong Kong depends on several other economies such as the growth in the US economy and the growth in China and Southeast Asia in general. Growth in Hong Kong is related to oil prices and world wide prices; Hong Kong is a small island with very little raw resources, it depends on exporting raw materials from abroad in order to manufacture them on its land and re-export them again to other parts of the world. Manufacturing: In 1950s, Hong Kong attracted manufacturing jobs and the vast majority of its work force where working in factories. In 1980s, Hong Kong had about 905,000 manufacturing workers and manufacturing was the most important economic sector, Economist Intelligence Unit (2003). Until 1990s, Factories were manufacturing products that depended on labour intensive work force, after that manufacturing jobs started dropping because of the climbing costs of labour and land. In 1990s, the number of manufacturing jobs was about 575,000 jobs. In 2001, the manufacturing sector contributed to less than 5% of the GDP, Economist Intelligence Unit (2003). Like most of the developed nations, Manufacturing in Hong Kong is becoming concentrated on manufacturing hi-tech products and services. The manufacturing sector has been replaced by rapidly expanding service sector, in 1991; the service sector has generated 72.3% of the GDP in Hong Kong and in 2002, the service sector has generated about 83.9% of the GDP, Economist Intelligence Unit (2003). Services: A- Banking: The banking sector is now the most important economic sector in Hong Kong, Hong Kong is currently the fifth largest banking centre in the world. Hong Kong offered investors a very good opportunity to invest in a growing emerging economy. Investors benefited from tax free capital gains and high dividends. B- Tourism: Tourism is a significant source of economic growth in Hong Kong; nearly 9 million people visit Hong Kong every year, Tourists spend around $7 billion every year. Tourism is the third source of foreign exchange reserves in Hong Kong. The banking and the tourism sectors have delivered a very good growth to the Hong Kong economy. In 1996, Hong Kongs per capita gross domestic product (GDP) was second to Japan and Singapore in Asia and exceeded that of the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, Reference: internet article: Marimari (no date given). . Sources of Success: Hong Kong offered investors business-friendly laws and gave complete freedom to the movement of capital in order to encourage investments and promote growth. Hong Kong is duty free zone and there are few barriers to trade goods and services; this has made the country an important link ring between the east and the west. Hong Kong left market forces decide wages and prices; the government did not legislate any minimum wage requirement or anti-trust laws. Competition in Hong Kong: The decline of the manufacturing sector has caused the decline of competition in Hong Kong. Competition is considered an essential part of the market system. Competition benefits consumers and businesses, it benefits consumer by lowering prices and it benefits businesses by allocating resources in a more efficient ways. Competition is very important to the health of Hong Kong economy, competition gives world economies the flexibility to adjust its prices in the case of external shock (macro-economic shock) Sturm,P, Jahangir,A, Breuer,P, Nishigaki,Y (2000). Emerging economies that depend on fixed exchange rates usually suffer from real exchange rate appreciation. The real exchange rate appreciation could be treated by either: Switching to a flexible exchange rate: according to the â€Å"law of one price† flexible exchange rate will adjust exchange rates in order to make tradable products have the same price everywhere in the world. Lowering prices: lowering prices of products is an important toll in avoiding international competition, lowering prices could only happen if the structure of the market is competitive. Having a competitive market structure in lowering prices and keeping international capital flows coming to Hong Kong. Tax Regime in Hong Kong: Hong Kong tax regime is based on a territorial-based tax regime; the tax is imposed on incomes that arise from Hong Kong, Hong Kong’ Inland Revenue. The economy of Hong Kong has gained a competitive advantage because it imposes no taxes on capital gains and dividends; this has encouraged many investors to invest in that country and established an important financial centre in Asia. Hong Kong has the following simple tax structure: Property Tax: Property tax is levied on rental income from land and buildings situated in Hong Kong. Salaries Tax: Salaries tax is imposed on incomes derived from working in Hong Kong or if incomes derived from services rendered from Hong Kong. Profits Tax: profits that are generated in Hong Kong are subject to taxes, profits of unincorporated business stands at a rate of 15% and corporations at 16.5%. The relationship between Hong Kong and the foreign exchange rate: The currency in Hong Kong is Hong Kong dollar which is pegged to the US dollar, if Hong Kong government wanted that peg to continue, it should tighten its fiscal deficit. The currency of Hong Kong is an investment asset, many investors diversify their currency allocations, this diversified allocation to the funds of the global investors results in an important cash inflow to Hong Kong. For the Hong Kong dollar to get part of the allocation, Hong Kong should stabilize its budget in order to attract more foreign investment. Analyze why the government considers launching a broad-based tax; Narrow tax base: Hong Kong has very narrow tax base, narrow tax base means that the collected revenues do not provide enough revenue to cover the expenditure of the country. If we compare TAX/GDP ratio in Hong Kong compared to other Asia Pacific and OECD countries we find out that Hong Kong has the lowest ratio of TAX/GDP. Hong Kong has a narrow tax base because the tax base is shrinking since 1998; sound tax systems are based on growing and stable (not volatile) tax base. Hong Kong has the lowest corporate tax rate among the OECD countries, the current corporate tax stands at 16%. Erosion of Tax Base: The erosion of tax base is actually a result of several factors, such as: sliding house prices, illegal betting, e-commerce and online stock trading. In the following section I will explain each of these factors separately: sliding house prices: For a long time, Hong Kong depended on land and property transactions to contribute to government revenue of Hong Kong. Collected tax from property in Hong Kong(stamp duty, rates and shares and estate duties) is well above the international benchmarks as a percentage of GDP, Property from taxes/GDP=24% for Hong Kong against 5% for the OECD and 10% for the Asia Pacific countries), Reference: Hong Kong Government, Tax Base Study. Hong Kong depends on Land sales revenues in financing its budget, this has made Hong Kong increasingly dependent on non-tax revenues. In the tax base study that has been conducted by the government of Hong Kong and KPMG consultancy, the study reports the fact that Hong Kong’s non-tax revenue is about 80% of its tax revenues against 16% for OECD benchmark. Because Hong Kong has enjoyed a buoyant business environment for years, banks started granting credit very easily to businesses, the expansion of credit was accompanied by rising house prices, land prices started going up sharply from 1984 to 1997, Gerlach, S Peng, W(2002). Many companies found working in the construction sector very profitable because they can make profit from two sources: Net profits from building new houses and buildings. Profits from capital gains resulting from continuous increase in house prices. The construction sector was one the most attractive economic sectors in the country. Foreign and national banks expanded credit to companies which operate in the construction sector; the banking sector played an â€Å"accelerator† role in the run-up of the property prices. The government in Hong Kong has constructed its tax system around the fact that land prices are going up all the time because they are in demand. Because of the financial crises of August 1997 that hit south east Asia and also because of the government policy on housing, Revenues from land sales and land utilization(lease, rent) dropped dramatically, suddenly the government found its huge revenues from land dwindling. On the 16th of January 2000, the secretary for the treasury stated that: â€Å"The other significant factor supporting our finances, in recent years, has been the high levels of revenue from land and property transactions. But as property prices stabilize, the huge windfalls are unlikely to recur in the future† illegal betting: Hong Kong’s treasury depended on revenues from betting activities in the country. Hefty taxes has made too many people start thinking about illegal betting, Schuman,M(2004). On the 16th of January 2000, the secretary for the treasury stated that: â€Å"The impact of illegal gambling and the rise of gambling through the Internet threaten to erode our income from betting tax† Hong Kong’s Home Affairs bureau said handle plunged 30% from 1996-97 to 65 billion Hong Kong dollars (US$8.3 billion; euro6.5 billion) in 2003-04, while government revenue from betting dropped from HK$12.3 billion (US$1.6 billion; euro1.24 billion) to HK$8.78 billion (US$1.13 billion; euro882 million). Meanwhile, the amount of cash and betting slips seized from illegal soccer and horse gambling operators jumped from HK$9.38 million (US$1.20 million; euro942,000) in 2001 to HK$19.7 million (US$2.53 million; euro1.98 million) in 2004, according to the government. The government said handle is projected to drop another 30% by 2007-08 if no action is taken, Reference: the associated press (2005). e-commerce: Hong Kong tax system is based upon territorial system, which means that profits and incomes that are derived from Hong Kong should be taxed according to Hong Kong tax laws, the development of e-commerce and the expansion in on-line selling to customers who are not based in Hong Kong through websites that belong to the global network makes hard for the government of Hong Kong to draw a clear line between the income that is derived from the internet and the income that is derived from Hong Kong. On the 16th of January 2000, the secretary for the treasury stated that: â€Å"The spread of e-commerce will have implications on all governments abilities to assess and collect business-related taxes. For us, the impact will be further accentuated by the territorial-base of our taxation regime† online stock market trading: the development of modern communications and the development of the financial markets made trading on-line possible from all over the world, trading has been made very easy by websites that are based on the web, the development of futures, options and spread betting markets have made possible to trade 24 hours a day. It is very hard to impose taxes on online trading because the companies who established these websites do not have a physical place in Hong Kong. On the 16th of January 2000, the secretary for the treasury stated that: â€Å"The acceleration in global stock market trading through the Internet will require us to consider whether the stamp duty we charge on stock transactions can be maintained at its present level, or whether by doing so we would impede the further development of the Hong Kong stock market† Hong Kong has a prolonged problem in tax revenues resulting from low income tax on working population and the constant decrease in the number of working individuals because of aging. The secretary of treasury addressed this problem by saying: â€Å"For we all take for granted the low level of taxation which we enjoy in Hong Kong. For example, less than 40% of the workforce pay any salaries tax, and only 10,000 people pay the maximum salaries tax rate of 15%. Companies pay profits tax at 16%, and only profits arising in Hong Kong are subject to tax. Also we have no taxes on other income or capital gains, no sales or value-added taxes on what we buy, and duty is payable on very few commodities. So much for revenue, on the expenditure side, the community expects more and better public services. An ageing population will place increasing demands on our health and welfare services. The need to tackle pollution will bring substantial costs. We need to reconcile this need for additional spending with a contracting revenue base. Based on the above reasons the treasury of Hong Kong is considering widening the tax base a strategic option. Expanding the tax base is a constitutional obligation as well as an economical obligation. Hong Kong has to reduce its deficit if it wants to keep the value of its dollar strong and able to attract investors. †¦. These sound practices are now enshrined in the Basic Law. So we are under a constitutional obligation to keep our finances in a healthy state. With a fiscal deficit last year, and a projected deficit this year and next year, the law and prudent financial management demand that we bring our finances back into the black in the near term. This would also have the added advantage of maintaining our fiscal reserves at the level necessary to help support the Hong Kong Dollar, an indisputable requirement given the events of 1998. 5- Aging population: Hong Kong has an aging population; this has put an increasing pressure on the social security system and the infrastructure. This has made the secretary of the treasury to state: The directions indicate that the continuation of current revenue and expenditure policy is not an option Considered that introducing general consumption tax is the most suitable for Hong Kong? In order to see if the general consumption tax is the most suitable tax or not we have to evaluate all Hong Kong tax options. Tax Options for Hong Kong: 1- Reduce Personal Allowance: Hong Kong tax systems is one of the most generous tax systems in the world, as we have said earlier fewer than 40% of the work force pay taxes, some tax experts are suggesting the government reducing its tax free income allowance in order to increase tax collection revenues, experts say that a reduction in the basic allowance of 10% will raise about $2bn revenue, even if Hong Kong decided to reduce the personal allowance by 50% this will raise 90% of its traditional revenue from the existing tax base is simply contributing more revenue, this options will not be suitable to Hong Kong because it does not broaden the tax base, this option will increase the weight of salaries tax in the overall tax collection, KPMG Tax base study. 2- Expand the Existing Tax Base via imposing capital gains tax: this option is not considered the best option because it will affect investment decisions negatively and lead to capital outflow from the country and make the country lose its competitive advantage. Imposing capital gains tax may cause job losses and that will make the tax collection from salaries substantially less, so the gains from imposing capital gains tax will be offset by loss of tax from loss of income and salaries taxes. Imposing taxes on dividends may not lead to desirable results. 3- Increase corporate taxes: Increasing corporate taxes is one of the main issues that the government of Hong Kong is discussing, most of the analyst believe that this is not an option because increasing the corporate tax will simply cause damage to the position of Hong Kong in the global market, analysts think that there is a global trend to reduce corporate tax in all over the world. Analysts think that countries are in competition with each other to provide facilities and tax concessions to corporations. If Hong Kong increased its corporate tax, it would be very easy for corporations to shift their headquarters to somewhere else in the world. According to Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants the government of Hong Kong is suggesting giving more corporate tax concessions to corporations in the following three areas: A- Full profits tax exemption to regional headquarters/offices in Hong Kong in respect of management consultancy income Derived by the Hong Kong entity from associated entities Overseas. B- Exemption of interest income received by regional offices from Loans made in Hong Kong to their overseas associates. C- Group relief. D- Loss incurred in the current year of assessment should be permitted to be offset against the assessable profits of one previous year. 3- Introduce New Taxes: introducing new taxes (apart from VAT/GST) could an innovative solution to Hong Kong’s structural fiscal deficit. In fact, there is no limit to the number of taxes that a government could impose in order to provide suitable macroeconomic environment for development. For example, Hong Kong could introduce environmental taxes in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from cars and factories, we all know that developed countries contribute significantly to the increasing stock of greenhouse gas emissions that causes global warming. Because Hong Kong has very busy airports and sea ports, Hong Kong could impose new taxes on land and sea departures. Experts advise the government to outsource the activities that it does not usually do efficiently, outsourcing will help the government reduce the deficit that is caused by inefficient use of resources. Experts did not only advise the government to introduce new taxes but also to abolish some taxes. For example, abolishing taxes on alcohol beverages in order to encourage wine tourism Experts think that applying this option will not solve Hong Kong’s structural deficit problem completely for the simple fact that Hong Kong has a reputation that it is a low tax country and if the government imposed taxes on several economic activities, Hong Kong reputation will be affected and this may have a damaging effect on the position of Hong Kong in the financial and business world. What experts are trying to say that Hong Kong government should introduce new taxes and abolish old taxes in order to keep the current balance of taxes and respond to the modern needs of the society (such as environmental taxes). 4- Broad-Based tax on general consumption: this could be VAT (Value Added Tax), GST (Goods and Services Tax) or Sales Tax. Kong’s structural deficit problems. Government says that a 3% GST will yield about $18bn which stands for 1.5% of GDP. Analysts recognize that GST is a powerful solution to Hong Kong’s Problem, 3% GST is capable of solving the problem, and in addition to that, 3% GST is in line with international standards. This tax is not only capable of covering the government expenditures but also capable of broadening the tax base since it is imposed on nearly all kinds of consumption. There are few points that the government needs to take in to its account when constructing the VAT/GST: It is recommended that the VAT/GST should be simple; simplicity is the common feature of Hong Kong tax system and keeping the proposed VAT/GST simple is consistent with the rest of the tax system. It is recommended that the VAT/GST should be comprehensive; in other words, it should include most goods and services in the economy, making the VAT/GST comprehensive will guarantee stable revenue to the government and will prevent further increases in the rate of VAT/GST. Stability: it is advised that the rate of the VAT should stay constant for 5-10 years to come, stability in the tax rate is very important in creating stable consumption and investment decisions, consumers will base their consumption decisions upon the prices of products and s

Invention Of Mass Media Media Essay

Invention Of Mass Media Media Essay Introduction Since the invention of mass media, mass media has always view as a big influence to the society and threat for certain group of people. This can be trace back to the 18th century, when the first theory about media- mass media theory was created and talks about how strong media is in directly influence people perception and action. Over the years, there are lots of mass media theories that talk about the power of media and how media is use to manipulate and influence people especially the folk culture or so call ordinary people. When talk about mass media theory, a big point that shouldnt be misses out is the rise of media theory in the age of propaganda. Propagandists rely on mass media very much as media reached mass audience. It is the best way for propagandist to change people action according to their own belief and expectation. One of the successful propaganda that has been widely practice was Nazis propaganda during world war one in 1933 to 1939. There are also others famous mass media theory like magic bullet theory, behaviorism, Freudianism and a lot more. Most of the time media often view as a negative influence especially for the elite group, and they claim that media should be control. There are also some theories that talk about the positive of mass media theory. For example, libertarianism theory says that people are good and rational. So media should have 100% freedom to report on everything and people can able to judge and differentiate what is right and wrong by themselves. Although there are a lots of theory argue about the pros and cons of mass media. However, one thing that everyone cannot denial is that mass media are one of the important things in human history especially the digital era like nowadays. The invention of mass media has brought human life to the whole new era and it has become an essential in human life. It helps human to convenient the process of communication between each other and also government nowadays to spread news and new policy to the people. According to Wang Lay Kim (2001), the first media in Malaysia was the English language Government Gazette call as the Prince of Whales Island Gazette (PWIG) in 1st of March 1806 in Penang Island. The last publication was on 21st of July 1827 total duration of 21 years. The first TV station in Malaysia are RTM1 and RTM 2 and then follow by the first privatization TV station which is TV3 in 1984. As mass media act as an important agent between a country and its people or government with the people, there is no exception for Malaysia to use mass media as the change agent for government policies. The mainstream media in Malaysia has always been perceived as an important agent of change for most of the governments policies. The mainstream media include TV stations, radio stations and also newspapers. As a developing country, Malaysias 4th prime minister Tun Dr.Mahathir Bin Mohammad have come out with the policy of vision 2020 which aim to further develop Malaysia into a fully develop country in the year 2020. In the year 2010, Malaysias current prime minister Dato Sri Haji Mohammad Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak introduced the concept of one Malaysia which mainly focus on unite multi races of Malaysian to view themselves as Malaysian without looking at skin, races and language. It is also focus on economic of Malaysia and development of Malaysia to help Malaysia to achieve the g oal of vision 2020. Since the introduction of 1 Malaysia concept, this concept has been widely promote by the government to the citizen using the mainstream media. As the government realizes that peoples reliability towards media is getting more nowadays, people receive most of their information through different type of media. So media is view as the most suitable way to promote the new 1 Malaysia concept. The messages that promote through mass media are not as simple as audience view. Those ideas and concepts have been carefully defined and structure before reach the target audience. Government has used several type of mass media theory to promote the concept of 1 Malaysia. With the help of the theory, it encourages Malaysian to accept the concept of 1 Malaysia mentally and physically. Political economy theory Political economy theory is mainly focus on the study of how the elite control the economics of a country based on the link between politics and base to maintain the hegemonic culture. In this context, the elite will be the government of Malaysia. Political economy theory also says that to understand the media, ones must look at the whole picture which includes the ownership of media and the control group of media. In Malaysia, although most of the mainstream media are privatization but all the media are closely related to the government and political party. For example, according to Wang Lay Kim (2001), Fleet holding, a company that arm by UMNO which have 80% share of the News straits Times Press (NSTP) and majority share in Utusan Melayu Press sin year 1973. Both of these presses have majority readership and circulation in Malaysias newspaper.Fleet holding also have the share of 40% in Malaysia TV station, TV3. Besides, the other Malaysia main English paper, 58% of theStar newspaper is also own by Huaren holding Sdn.Bhd which link to MCA, one of the political party under the government. Cleary, we can see that there is a tight relationship between mainstream media with the political parties. With this point, it is not hard for the government to promote the idea of 1 Malaysia and gain acceptance by the people. The messages first come out by the elite or government through allocative control. Then the media under government in charge of the operational control which manipulate the word and idea before promote to the public to achieve the goal. It is not a surprise that thestar newspaper report atleast one article about the 1 Malaysia concepts per week. For example, 13 September 2012 thestar report about another 1 Malaysia clinic open. 15 September 2012 is about 175 1 Malaysia clinics by year end.16 September 2012, A truly 1 Malaysia day for both side of S.china sea. 19 September 2012, PM launches books of 1 Malaysia. 29 September 2012, Lots of goodies under 1 Malaysia schemes. As we know that, newspaper has always acted as a medium for people to receive information and people tend to believe newspaper as it is more accurate and professional. Government take control on the production of media by reporting the positive news about the 1 Malaysia concepts can surely gain support from the citizen. Hegemony Hegemony talks about elite stay their status quo through coercion and consent. Besides, it also states that force cannot maintain the power of the elite. Persuasion, explanation and understanding make people act willing and happily towards order. The best way for government to spread consent was using the mass media, especially the mainstream media that closely related to the government. Through hegemony and media, media act as a way to educate people how to behave and what to do in their life that consistent with the government goal. We can see how hegemony is use by government to promote the concept of 1 Malaysia in mainstream media like TV and newspaper in Malaysia. First of all, the slogan itself for 1 Malaysia concept Rakyat didahulukan, pencapaian diutamankan in English it means people first, performance now. This is obviously telling people that the government care about the citizen and the future of the country through the promotion of mainstream media every day. In order to achieve the part of consent that stated in hegemony, one of the main focuses of 1 Malaysia concept is to help Malaysia to achieve the goal of vision 2020 which is a fully develop country. Since the introduce of 1 Malaysia concept, Key Performance Indicator (KPI) is introduce by the current prime minister to improve the effectiveness of Malaysian government department for satisfaction of the citizen towards the service and try to shape the positive image of citizen towards the government. Under KPI, a mechanism is provided to evaluate the effectiveness of government agency towards crime prevention, reducing government corruption, increased to quality education, improvement of public transportation, improve the living of low income citizen and rural are infrastructure. Since the election of 2008, electors have lost confident on the government which means Barisan Nasional. It is very important for government to fulfill the need and satisfaction of the citizen which is the part of consent in hegemony. The result of KPI is keep highlight by the mainstream media. In long term effect, people will start to believe that the government did do some changes on the transparency of politic. These help the government to gain confident of the citizen. Besides, mainstream media often cover other news about 1 Malaysia. For example, thestar report an article about the new open 1 Malaysia clinic and grocery shop. This is also a long term effect of persuasion to told the citizen about 1 Malaysia concept are always for the benefit of the citizen, in the other hand, it also means that everyone should support the concept as it only bring benefit to the public. Moreover, the song and slogan of 1 Malaysia are often playing in TV station and radio station. It acts to reinforce people about 1 Malaysia concept are always for the public. Just like the lyrics of 1 Malaysia song. Im 4 U. The use of coercion in hegemony which is law state to control over the content of media towards government report like the printing press and publication act, broadcasting act and official secret act. Combine with the use of consent like ownership of media and control over the content of media. Surely the government can maintain their status quo and spread their ideology to the citizen without the consciousness of the people. People will also accept the concept willing without any force. Marxist Theory Marxist theory talks about that hierarchical class system are the roots of social problem. How base, superstructure and capitalism are closely related to each other. The main premises of Marxism said if the idea of production can be control, people can be control. The ideology of the elite are widely use to dominant public thinking and to maintain the inequality of social class. In human history, social class problem have been discuss generation over generation. However, the inequalities between social classes are still appearing in todays world. For example, riots happened in Malaysia on 13 May 1969 was happen due to the imbalance of economy and social classes between races. It makes Malaysia government realize about the important of economy balance between races. Although the large economy gaps between races in Malaysia are solve through New Economic Policy (NEP), but the problem of social classes are still remain. The government member and royal family of Malaysia are defining as the elite group or aristocrat in Marxist theory. In order for the government to maintain their status quo, the elite own the capitalism with their base. However, for their ideology to spread and accept by people, media are use as a tool by government. According to Wang Lay Kim (2001), Malaysias second privatize TV station Metrovision, the four share holder company was closely related to UMNO. The companies are City television Sdn.Bhd, Melewar Corporation, Utusan Melayu and Medanmas Sdn. Bhd. This can explain how government act as capitalism, own the base which are the media and message production and spread of 1 Malaysia concept which is government ideology to maintain their status quo. In literal, 1Malaysia concept is use to help Malaysian to improve their living condition and upgrade the overall citizen social classes to eliminate poverty. But in the other hand, it is also an ideology to maintain their power. Government realize that to maintain their status quo while achieve peaceful among the bourgeoisie and proletariat or so call Malaysian, 1 Malaysia concept are one of the best way to achieve goal for mutual benefit of the country and the elite. By own the mainstream media and control of the message production, people can be control. Conclusion In conclusion, with the support of political economy, hegemony theory and Marxist theory, I strongly agree that 1 Malaysia concept can be accept by Malaysian with the use of mainstream media. Most of the media theories agree that media have the long term effect on people but not direct effect. When people expose to something for a long term, they tend to believe it. Mainstream media keep reporting the positive news of 1 Malaysian; time by time people will accept it without conscious about it. Besides, mainstream media in Malaysia are directly control by legislative law and indirectly own by the government. With the support of Marxist theory, which says control of the media production, people can be control. It strengthens my opinion towards Malaysian acceptance of 1 Malaysia concept.

Communication and Social Behavior in the Atlantic Bottlenose Dolph Essa

Introduction Social behavior in mammals other than humans has always been something that has fascinated not only scientists, but the general population as well. Large mammals known to exhibit similar behaviors to humans have always been popular favorites at zoos and aquariums. One particular favorite is an animal known for its social behavior and intelligence: Tursiops truncates, the bottlenose dolphin (Prevost, 1995). This cetacean has global distribution that spans all tropical and temperate marine waters with bays, sounds, estuaries, and open shorelines being the habitats most frequently inhabited, and sea grass beds being the preferred nursery locations (Prevost, 1995). These mammals are some of the most admired sea creatures and have shown great capacity for intelligence. They are often trained and used in shows at aquariums. Most frequently studied are their communication types and their complex social behavior, with things like verbal and nonverbal communication, communities and social hi erarchies, and common social behaviors receiving a particular emphasis. Physical Attributes and Relevant Zoological Information Tursiops truncates, with its Atlantic sub-species named T .t. truncates, has some very distinct physical features. The size is a range of six to thirteen feet or two to four meters (Prevost, 1995) (Reynolds & Wells, 2003). The average dolphin is about 9 feet long and usually weighs about 600 pounds, although males are typically 25% larger than females (CITATION). The rostrum extends for several inches, but is relatively short compared to the rest of the torpedo shaped body. (Felhammer, et al. 2003). The rostrum is also the basic for the T. t. truncates common name of â€Å"bottlenose† (Felhammer, et al. 2003). ... ...d Social Organization of the Bottlenose Dolphin: A Review. Marine Mammmal Science,( 2 ed, pp. 34–63). Prevost, J. F. (1995). Bottlenose dolphins. (pp. 18-19). Minneapolis, MN: Abdo Consulting Group, Inc. Janik, V. M. (2009). Vocal communication in birds and mammals. (1 ed., Vol. 40, pp. 123-148). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Inc. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=5v63gz04YVgC&printsec=frontcover Feldhammer, G. A., Thomspon, B. C., & Chapman, J. A. (2003). Wild mammals of north america: biology, management, and conservation. (2 ed., pp. 397-425). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=-xQalfqP7BcC&printsec=frontcover Reynolds, J. E., & Wells, R. S. (2003). Dolphins, whales, and manatees of florida: A guide to sharing their world. (1 ed., pp. 28-45). Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

Abortion in context: What was the fate of an unwanted or orphaned child in the nineteenth century? :: Essays Papers

Abortion in context: What was the fate of an unwanted or orphaned child in the nineteenth century? For as much as has been written about the crime of abortion and infanticide, equally much as been said against forced maternity, marital rape, and woman’s lack of control over her own body, all circumstances resulting in unwanted pregnancy and unwanted children. Such circumstances all stemmed from unique family, social, or health issues, with no one cause resulting in the abandonment of a child. A lack of knowledge about both sanitation and about women’s health resulted in the deaths of mothers during birth. General poverty and migration from farms to city centers made large families more difficult to support financially. Giving up a child because it could not be economically supported by its family was a common occurrence. As abortion became more stigmatized and criminalized, children who were the product of rape or wedlock were also abandoned. Deaths related to the Civil War also dramatically increased the numbers of orphaned children. Within the pages of The Revoluti on, it is asked: â€Å"Women who are in the last stages of consumption, who know that their offspring must be puny, suffering, neglected orphans, are still compelled to submit to maternity, and dying in childbirth, are their husbands ever condemned? Oh, no!† (2) Stemming from models developed in Rome under Marcus Aurelius and Florence’s Innocenti, orphans were first nursed by peasant women, then adopted or apprenticed by the time they were seven or eight years old (Simpson 136). Care of the orphans (and also the sick, the poor, the elderly, and the mentally ill) was first the responsibility of the church, but with increased legislation, the responsibility gradually fell under the state (Simpson 137). Pennsylvania passed such a â€Å"poor law† in 1705, establishing an â€Å"Overseer of the Poor† for each township. Each overseer was responsible for finding funds for children and more commonly, for finding positions of servitude or apprenticeship (7). Such a model of short-term care followed by adoption, apprenticeship, or indentured servitude became the standard for dealing with orphaned children. The development of specific orphanages or child asylums, however, did not come until later in the nineteenth century. Orphaned children were first treated in almshouses, first established in Philadelphia in 1731 (7). Poorhouses, workhouses, and almshouses, all essentially the same institution, housed both adults and children without homes. Residents were seen as nearly free sources of labor, working in sweatshops or nearby mines in the case of several British poorhouses (5).

Differences and Similarities between 1984 and Brazil Stories Essay

The 1984 novel by Orwell portrays a perfect totalitarian society considered the most extreme realization imaginable modern government with absolute power. The Brazil story, Sam as the central, character is inspired by George Orwell’s novel 1984. Both the novels portray a state in which the government monitors and controls all human life aspects to the extent of having a disloyal thought against the law. The presence of bureaucratic governments in both stories reveals that everything is under control, and everyone is watched. Likewise, the main characters in both stories are protagonists of their governments and exhibits similar thoughts, actions, and personalities. The similarities between Winston Orwell (1984) and Sam Lowry (Brazil) mentions their lives as both live in pathetic little flats. Also, they both work for the government that controls news and records and finds their jobs monotonous but they don’t want promotion but the both love their jobs. Another similarit y between the two characters mentions that they both try to destroy the government that employs them. Sam develops a negative attitude of destroying his government after meeting Jill. Likewise, Winston secretly wants to corrupt his government beginning of 1984. Also, the protagonists rebel against their governments because they are entangled in love with women. They are both caught with women in similar circumstances. They were both lying on the bed after lovemaking session and they are alerted by a sound of people rushing in their rooms. As such, both couples are caught in bed under similar circumstances by their authorities and end up being tormented. Likewise, the reason for destroying their governments is because of love for the two women. There is also similarity in the way these two heroes dealt with their government. Sam is caught by betrayal by his two best acquaintances, similar to Winston who is caught by betrayal and deceit. The major differences between the protagonists are that the love Sam as for Jill is genuine while Winston is driven by lust. The main reason why he wants to sleep with Julia is because he loves the corrupt nature of the relationship. As such, Winston betrays Julia while Sam never betrays Jill. During the torture in their respective ministries, Winston is mostly worried by his torture, and he begs for stop and asks the authorities to torture anybody else, Julia included. However, Sam is concerned about Jill during his torture, and when he learns of her death, he still dreams of her. After learning of the death of Jill during his arrest, he dreams of being rescured by Tuttle and moving towards the countryside with Jill (Gilliam, 1996). As such, Sam doesn’t lust for Jill or because he wants to break the law. Jill is the girl of his dreams and he has no ill intentions for his government. Also, Winston, through his thoughts, had begun to deviate that would lead to his torture and d eath. However, Sam had not intentions of betraying the government, yet it turned out that way. In terms of government, the two stories criticize two forms of government. Gilliam tries to satirize capitalism while Orwell satirizes fascism and socialism (Radford, 1984). References Gilliam, T. (1996). Brazil: The Criterion Collection Director’s Cut, The Voyager Company 1985, Irvington, New York. Radford, M. (1984). Nineteen Eighty- Four (1984), Polygram Home Video, Chatsworth, California. Source document

Nationalism and the origins of The first world war Essay

When global war broke out in 1914 dreams of world peace and prosperity were shattered. Accordingly, the First World War was arguably one of the most traumatic episodes in the history of international affairs. Geopolitically speaking, the First World War (also described as WWI in this essay) was unprecedented in both scale and sheer loss of human life. Never before had the world witnessed such carnage and violence perpetuated through the use of modern technology. The First World War touched much of the world and the implications of this conflict reverberated across the globe. Seeking to understand the historical explanations as well as the role that nationalism played in the outbreak of the First World War, this essay will explore the multiple causes of the development of global hostilities in 1914. Using a three pronged analytical model, the causes of the WWI will be discusses with reference to the pre-conditions and precipitants for conflict and the triggers which sparked the war. Understanding that WWI was an international event with global repercussions, we will analyze the various antecedents for the emergence of armed conflict through a multi-causal approach. This essay will argue that a variety of factors led to the outbreak of the First World War and while there is not one single causal explanation for the emergence of global conflict in 1914, a proper explanation of the origins of this conflict takes into account the amalgamation of each of these factors. While nationalism was an important factor leading to the outbreak of international conflict between the warring parties, this essay will argue that in fact, nationalism was an important precursors to the emergence of conflict but the sole and deciding force in the violence which erupted on the shores of Europe and reverberated across the planet. Although the First World War has recently been overshadowed in the aftermath of the WWII, this conflict was the first in terms of scale and sheer destruction and thus continues to be worthy of scholarly analysis. Nationalism in International Affairs Nationalism is an important force in international relations and has been so for centuries. As a basic principle of the international order, concepts of state sovereignty are intrinsic to our understanding of the world system. Accordingly, the international system is predicated upon the existence of nation-states and nationalism is a belief or sense of identity within the nation. The Treaty of Westphalia established the principle of state sovereignty, another fundamental principle of the international order which established the nation-state as an autonomous political entity. Similar to tribalism or a sense of social kinship, nationalism as a potent political force began in Europe in the late eightieth century and was connected with a decline in overall religiosity, the development of industrialization, Enlightenment thoughts and a concerted effort by political elites to â€Å"build states†. By inculcating a sense of nationalist fervor in the citizens of their respective countries, elites have been able to manipulate nationalism for political purposes. Mass mobilization towards a variety of specific causes through an appeal to nationalist sentiment has been used as a political tool for centuries. Although not exclusively a negative force, nationalism remains an important ordering principle of the international system and a force to be reckoned with (Anderson 2006). Preconditions to the Outbreak of Conflict There were a variety of preconditions to the emergence of the conflict, which up until that date, had been the largest that the world had ever seen. The First World War represented the dueling alliances of the Triple Entente – composed of Britain, France and Russia – and the Triple Alliance – comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Pre-conditions are best described as the precursors to conflict and there were many underlying long-term causes for the belligerent behaviour of the states of Europe in 1914. An arms race, underway for years, and growing at a rapid pace just prior to the emergence of the First World War set the stage for violent conflict between the major states of the region. Accordingly, the arms race occurring at the time exacerbated the global balance of power and led to an increased likelihood of aggressive behavior between the armies of Europe. As the European armies grew and competed with one another for size, manpower and prestige, the naval race between German and Britain contributed to a partition of the major states of the continent into two opposing camps. Competition was surely facilitated by nationalist tendencies and a desire to counterbalance the political, diplomatic and military ambitions of one’s rival. In addition to international arms races, domestic pressures and a willingness of the part of the citizens of some countries to engage in war helped precipitate the conflict. Accordingly, the diplomatic isolation of Germany, Austro-Hungary was another important contributor to the outbreak of global war in 1914. German nationalism, largely ignored in the settlement of the Congress of Vienna almost one hundred years before, did experience a resurgence particularly after the imposition of what was then conceived by many to be an unfair Treaty in Vienna and gained prominence in the middle to late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Accordingly, a German nationalism movement led a revolution to unify the country in 1871 – a similar movement in Italy served to unite that country in 1861 – and remained an important, although not solely important, force in attempting to explain the preconditions of conflict in 1914 (Joll and Martel 1992). In addition to the pre-conditions above, a series of crises from 1904-1914 also helped pave the way for the emergence of the First World War and were important pre-cursors to this conflict. The First Moroccan Crisis from 1905-1906 resulted in a German offensive which created the Entente. This was followed by the Bosnia-Herzegovina Crisis of 1908/1909 in which Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. This important precursor to future conflict forced Russia to reevaluate its geopolitical situation and in turn view Germany and Austro-Hungary as a potential threat. The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911-1912) united Russia, Britain and France against Germany and was an important stabilizer for the Triple Entente informal alliance. The final conflicts which were important pre-conditions to the outbreak of violence in 1914 were the Balkan Wars 1912-13. These series of wars removed the Ottoman Empire from the equation and led to an impressive German arms build-up (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). On the Cusp of War: Precipitants to Conflict Precipitants are short-term crises that made the war seem inevitable and a series of crises, beginning with the assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, made large-scale war in Europe seem like an inevitability. In fact, the months of late June/early July were replete with crises beginning with the violent assassination in Serbia of the Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Assassinated on Serbia’s national day by a violent terrorist organization, the Black Hand, this event alone is described by many observers of the First World War as perhaps the most monumental precipitant to the outbreak of hostilities between the major powers of Europe. Following his violent death at the hands of a Serbian nationalist, Germany unilaterally supported the right of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to respond as it saw fit. This led to successive increases in belligerence on both sides and an ultimatum by Austria-Hungary to Serbia (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). Triggers and the Outbreak of War There are a variety of direct antecedents to the War of 1914 and the following will describe the important triggers for the world’s largest military mobilization to-date in the aftermath of the assassination of Franz-Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While there is not one single event which explains the emergence of large-scale conflict, the following will chart the important triggers which led to the internationalization of conflict and the explosion of a truly global war. Serbia’s rejection of the ultimatum put forth by the Austro-Hungarian represented a desire on its part to safeguard its independence. By rejecting the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum and seeking Russian support, the Serbian republic unwittingly set the stage for the bloodiest war the world had ever known. Serbian intransigence and refusal to acquiesce to the demands of Austria-Hungary set the stage for Russian involvement which internationalized the conflict and significantly increased its scope. At the time, the Russian army was the largest army on the planet and the inclusion of Russia into the dispute significantly increased its scope and explosive potential. Following the introduction of Russia into the equation, the first four days of August 1914 proved to significantly expand the horizons of the conflict. During those first few days of the month, Germany declared war on Russia and its ally France, leading to the mobilization of Britain and the further internationalization of belligerence. Germany’s decision to declare war on Russia and the Entente powers represented an important expansion of the conflict on the side of the Triple Alliance and set the stage for the mobilization and later involvement of Britain in the brewing hostilities (Strachan 2001; Joll and Martel 1992). Origins of the â€Å"Mass War† and Nationalism At the outbreak of World War One, states mobilized what scholars have described as â€Å"mass wars†: the uniquely modern phenomenon of warfare developed in the twentieth century which required the wholesale diversion of economies, labour and national productivity towards the war effort (44). Accordingly, â€Å"from 1914 on, wars were unmistakably mass wars†¦such a level of mass mobilization cannot be maintained except by a modern high-productivity industrialized economy. † (Hobsbawm 1994). State apparatuses grew and â€Å"mass wars† required governments to mobilize people, resources, and armaments to serve the war effort. Citizens were conscripted to fight, industry was instructed to produce arms, and the government became intimately involved in the establishment of monopolistic war economies. Although nationalism did play a role in the establishment of war economies and the growth of military-industrial complexes built up to support the war effort, many factors account for call to arms and the descent into extreme bloodshed and violence during the First World War. Mass mobilization towards the war effort was certainly helped by nationalist fervor as the belligerent parties prepared for conflict which until then would have been on an unimaginable scale, but as has been shown above, nationalism is just one part of the equation in attempting to explain the origins of the First World War (Hobsbawm 1994). Concluding Remarks As one of the most traumatic episodes in the history of the world, the First World War represented geopolitical conflict on an unprecedented scale. Never before had the world witnessed such carnage, bloodshed and violence. Seeking to understand the historical explanations and discuss the role that nationalism has played in the outbreak of the First World War, this essay has explored the antecedents for conflict in 1914. Important preconditions, precipitants and triggers have accounted for the emergence of this conflict. Nationalism, although an important factor which can help explain the emergence of World War One, is actually only one aspect of the overall conditions which lay the groundwork for World War One. Nationalism may be a guiding principle of the international order but a focus which exclusively explores the role of nationalism in the causes of war gives an incomplete picture of this global conflict. While nationalism may have been a force in the establishment of alliances in Europe, there were a handful of other preconditions, precipitants and triggers which led to this conflict. As this essay has shown, many factors led to the violent episode now known as the Second World War and while each factor differed in substance, each contributed to the emergence of the â€Å"War to End All Wars†. REFERENCES Anderson, B. 2006. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso. Hobsbawm, E. 1994. Age of Extremes: The Short History of the Twentieth Century: 1914-1991. London: Abacus. James Joll, J. and G. Martel. 1992. The Origins of the First World War. New York: Longman. McEvedy, C. 2003. The New Penguin Atlas of History. New York: Penguin. Strachan, H. 2001. The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War. London: Oxford University Press.